COMMUNITIES

The Agrarian Community of Obergurgl is a traditional collective in Tyrol, Austria. Located within the municipality of Sölden in the upper Ötztal valley, it lies at an altitude of approximately 1,930 meters. This type of agrarian community is based on a historical model of collective ownership and resource use, where farmers jointly manage alpine pastures, forests, and other assets to ensure efficient use and long-term preservation. The land consists mainly of high alpine pastureland used for sheep, goats and cows. The grazing land is partly used for the members' own livestock, partly for the livestock of other farmers or leased directly to shepherds with their livestock. The land is also leased for tourism purposes, such as ski resorts, which account for most of the farming community's income. Today, the Agrarian Community of Obergurgl is an example of blending tradition with ecological responsibility in the Alpine region.

The Union of Rice Producers' Cooperatives of the Koussin-Lélé (Union des Coopératives de Producteurs de Riz du périmètre irrigué de Koussin-Lélé, UCooP-KL) is a community of rice farmers established in early 1969 following the construction of irrigation infrastructure and introduction of rice farming in Koussin-Lélé by a Chinese development project in collaboration with the government of Benin. The infrastructure is located in Adogbé, Covè, Zou administrative district, Benin. Soon after the Chinese cooperation ended in 1978, rice production declined because of the poor management of the infrastructure. Rice farming gradually resumed after 1984, influenced by the Green Revolution, and became more prominent after the renovation of the irrigation scheme in 1989 through a new partnership with China. Currently, rice production represents the major income source of farmers. A total of 170 local rice farmers are organized into 10 cooperatives, one of which is composed exclusively of women. A management committee of 3 members – President, Secretary, and Treasurer – leads each cooperative, and a Board 12 members manages the entire Union of cooperatives. UCooP-KL farmers share common natural resources, including agricultural land and irrigation water from two water streams, “Koussin-go” and “Lélé-go”, both tributaries of the “Zou” River. Agricultural lands of the irrigation scheme were originally donated to the government by the initial occupants of the community. Today, the perimeter is expanded from 106 ha in 1969 to 206 ha and remains the property of the district, yet commonly managed by UCooP-KL for rice production purposes. Land access is free for members of the Union, but each member contributes a fixed fee paid to the state per ton of rice produced. Water distribution, however, varies across the production seasons. From September to December, all farmers can irrigate their plots without restriction. During dry seasons (January to March), water discharge decreases, and available water from the two streams can only irrigate 63% of all plots. During this period, water distribution is regulated with a calendar established by the board to define who and when each farmer can receive water in their plots. In addition to the irrigation canals, other shared agricultural infrastructure of the community includes tilling machines, rice hulling machines, drying terraces, and rice stores. Conflicts over access to and use of shared resources and infrastructure are often resolved by the management team. If no mutual agreement is reached, disputes may be brought before the Union's Board of Directors for resolution

The locality of Guallatire, situated in the commune of Putre (Arica and Parinacota Region), rises imposingly at over 4,200 meters above sea level in the heart of the Chilean Altiplano. Amid Andean landscapes and vast plains, its homesteads or hamlets are distributed around fertile wetlands (bofedales) and grasslands, where the Aymara community continues practicing semi-extensive herding of llamas and alpacas, as they have for generations. Organized under the Indigenous Association of Livestock Farmers of Guallatire, these herders maintain a deep connection with their ancestral territory, which spans from family-owned lands to protected areas within the Las Vicuñas National Reserve, adjacent to Lauca National Park, recognized by UNESCO as a Biosphere Reserve. Each family manages between 600 and 1,200 hectares, hosting an average of 30 to 300 camelids, including Huacaya alpacas and K’ara and Thampulli llamas. Camelid husbandry is the community's primary economic and cultural activity, focusing on meat production and the development of fine-wool handicrafts while respecting traditions and ensuring the sustainability of the fragile high-Andean bofedales.

The "Société d’Intérêt Collectif Agricole" (SICA) of Garnier is a cooperative of 35 livestock farmers who share summer pastures in the Monts du Forez, in the Garnier sector (Saint-Bonnet-le-Courreau, Loire 42, France). These mountain pastures are located at an altitude of 1,300 to 1,600 meters and are composed of alpine flora. The specific geographical location of the SICA’s parcels, near and within protected areas of ecological interest (Natura 2000), requires agricultural practices that preserve the environment. Each summer, approximately 1,700 sheep (nursing ewes) and 190 cattle (dairy and beef) graze on these pastures, which cover around 560 hectares. A shepherd is employed to manage the sheep and cattle herds from April to October.

Al-Badia is home to the Bedouins, a term used to describe the Arab nomadic and semi-nomadic communities of the Middle East and North Africa. Traditionally, the Bedouins have relied on herding and livestock breeding as their primary means of livelihood (Al-Jazi, 2023; Bawdi, 2015). Throughout history, Bedouin tribes have been self-organized, self-governed, and independent, playing a crucial role in shaping the cultural and social fabric of the region (Al-Jazi, 2023). Despite their rich heritage, the Bedouin community is often considered marginalized (Kark & Frantzman, 2012). Al-Qatraneh, located in the northwest of Jordan’s Southern Badia, is part of the Al-Karak governorate in southern Jordan (Al-Jazi, 2023). Historically, it has been a key site for pastoral nomads, who camped there during the summer months (Tarawneh & Abudanah, 2013). Its significance also stems from its location along the Al-Hijaz railroad and the historic pilgrimage route (Ministry of Interior of Jordan, accessed 25/5/2024). Today, Al-Qatraneh is home to several Bedouin tribes who have settled there as part of the "Bedouin Sedentarization Programs" (Al-Jazi, 2023). This deep connection to both nomadic traditions and modern settlement makes Al-Qatraneh an essential focal point for studying Bedouin livelihoods, governance, and cultural adaptation in contemporary Jordan.

Social organization created in 1968 that manages communal lands, mainly dedicated to extensive livestock activity (goats and cattle). The Ejido has an assembly hall where they hold regular meetings. Other common infrastructures include some of the water points for the livestock (mainly dams and “tinajas”). They have recently built cabins and palapas for tourism. The Ejido was formalized in 1992, and since then has had an internal statute that has been modified and updated over the years to adapt to changing circumstances. This internal statute establishes the rules for joining the Ejido, the organizational structure, and the rights and responsibilities of the “ejidatarios”.

Social organization that collectively manages land mainly for agricultural and livestock use. The agriculture practiced in the society is rain-fed, mainly cereals. The livestock is mainly sheep for meat. Both activities are interrelated, as crop stubble is used by livestock and livestock manure contributes to the fertilization of agricultural land. The community has infrastructure that is shared and managed by the community itself, such as water troughs for livestock, roads, and “parideras”. The maintenance of this infrastructure is financed on the one hand by the fees paid by the members of the association (per hectare in the case of agricultural farmers and per head in the case of livestock farmers) and on the other hand by the municipality. This society has written rules, contained in statutes (dating back to the 19th century), which define, among other things, who can be a member of the society, the rights and obligations of the members, the organizational structure of the society itself and the decision-making processes. Any male or female resident, registered or born in Castejón de Monegros can be a member of this association.

The GDA (Group for Agricultural Development) of Bir Mahjoub is a social organisation founded in 1966.  It is a coastal oasis located west of the village of Gannouche on the Gulf of Gabes in south-eastern Tunisia. It is located about 7 km north of the city of Gabes on the National Road 1. The total agricultural area of the commune is 374 ha, mainly devoted to irrigated crops and sedentary livestock farming. The GDA mainly manages the common aquifer, where it usually digs (one or more) deep wells with high debits and manages them on behalf of all the affiliated farmers. The GDA operates according to an internal statute that defines the rules for joining the association, the organisational structure and the rights and obligations of the GDA. It also sets out its specific internal rules for water sharing between farmers, based on water availability, demand and other technical characteristics of the irrigation canal.